Dante Alighieri (1265-1321)

Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) was the leading poet of the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance. He was also a prominent thinker in the fields of literary theory, moral and social philosophy, and political thought. His most famous work, The Divine Comedy, is a literary landmark and a synthesis of his political, religious, and social views. Dante's embrace of human individuality and happiness and his use of Italian rather than Latin in The Divine Comedy are often considered to signal the end of the Middle Ages and the rise of Renaissance humanism. Dante was born to a noble Florentine family who belonged to the White Guelf party and were allied with the papacy. His involvement with the chaotic politics of the time, however, convinced Dante of the necessity for political unity and the separation of church and state. Nevertheless, after the Black Guelfs took power in Florence, Dante was forced into exile for the balance of his years.

Dante's conceptions of the correct political, religious, and social orders were a powerful critique of existing practices. His work De monarchia (possibly written for Henry VII [H.R.E. 1308-1313])1 argues for a supreme world monarchy with all other temporal orders subordinate to it. The church's sole mission, in this view, is to concentrate on religious matters, especially salvation. In this scheme Dante accepted the claims of neither the emperor nor the papacy (articulated famously by Boniface VIII [r. 1294-1303]) to supremacy over both spheres. Dante argued that both leaders were neglecting their duties, as the current disorder seemed to prove. His work was condemned as heretical.

While Dante incorporated many Scholastic themes and beliefs into his works, his ultimate doctrine was far different and humanistic in nature. He did not believe that this life is merely a necessary burden in preparation for eternal life, but that individuals should try to be happy on earth. Moreover, he believed the individual soul is part of the collective whole but retains its individuality. His focus on the individual was part of his larger scheme and is evident in the numerous distinct personalities his character meets in The Divine Comedy. His design for a world order incorporates his belief in the dual nature of humanity. In this view, man is of two parts: earthly/temporary (the body) and spiritual/eternal (the soul). Man's duty is to attempt to achieve earthly happiness and everlasting life. This view of humankind's nature and duties was an integral part of Dante's political beliefs and reinforced his view that church and state must be separate. Indicative of the emergence of humanism was the larger role that Dante provided for the humane arts in ordering earthly and spiritual matters. In his criticism of the church and empire and his reworking of Christian doctrine, Dante ushered in a new era of intellectual endeavor.

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Of Beauty And Duty 

TWO ladies to the summit of my mind

Have clomb, to hold an argument of love.

The one has wisdom with her from above,

For every noblest virtue well designed:

The other, beauty's tempting power refined

And the high charm of perfect grace approve:

And I, as my sweet Master's will doth move,

At feet of both their favors am reclined.

Beauty and Duty in my soul keep strife,

At question if the heart such course can take

And 'twixt the two ladies hold its love complete.

The fount of gentle speech yields answer meet,

That Beauty may be loved for gladness sake,

And Duty in the lofty ends of life .

Sonnet: I Muse Over

At whiles (yea oftentimes) I muse over

The quality of anguish that is mine

Through Love: then pity makes my voice to pine

Saying, 'Is any else thus, anywhere?'

Love smileth me, whose strength is ill to bear;

So that of all my life is left no sigh

Except one thought; and that, because 'tis thine,

Leaves not the body but abideth there.

And then if I, whom other aid forsook, 

Would aid myself, and innocent of art

Would fain have sight of thee as a last hope,

No sooner do I lift mine eyes to look

Than the blood seems as shaken from my heart,

And all my pulses beat at once and stop. 

* * *

I felt a spirit of love begin to stir

Within my heart, long time unfelt till then;

And saw Love coming towards me fair and fain

(That I scarce knew him for his joyful cheer),

Saying, 'Be now indeed my worshipper!'

And in his speech he laughed and laughed again.

Then, while it was his pleasure to remain,

I chanced to look the way he had drawn near,

And saw the Ladies Joan and Beatrice

Approach me, this the other following,

One and a second marvel instantly.

And even as now my memory speaketh this,

Love spake it then: 'The first is christened Spring;

The second Love, she is so like to me.' 

O Intelligence Moving The Third Heaven 

O Intelligences moving the third heaven,

the reasons heed that from my heart come forth,

so new, it seems, that no one else should know.

The heaven set in motion by your worth,

beings in gentleness created even, 

keeps my existence in its present woe,

so that to speak of what I feel and know

means to converse most worthily with you:

I beg you, then, to listen to me well.

Of something in me new I now will tell— 

how grief and sadness this my soul subdue,

and how a contradiction from afar

speaks through the rays descending from your star. 

A thought of loveliness seems now to be

life to my ailing heart: it used to fly 

oft to the very presence of your Sire;

and there a glorious Lady sitting high

it also saw, who spoke so pleasingly,

my soul would say “Up there dwells my desire.”

Now one appears, which I in dread admire 

a mighty lord that makes it flee away,

so mighty, terror from my heart outflows.

To me he brings a lady very close,

and “Who salvation seeks,” I hear him say,

“let him but gaze into this lady’s eyes, 

if he can suffer agony of sighs.” 

Such is the contradiction, it can slay

the humble thought that is still telling me

of a fair angel up in heaven crowned.

My soul bemoans its present misery, 

saying, “Unhappy me! How fast away

went he, in whom I had some solace found!”

And of my eyes it says, with mournful sound,

“When was it such a lady pierced their sight?

Why did they fail to see me in her guise? 

I said, ‘Oh, surely, in this lady’s eyes

the one must dwell who kills my peers with fright.’ 

To no avail I warned them (Oh, my dread!),

but look at her they did, and I fell dead.” 

“Oh, no, not dead, you are bewildered much, 

O my poor soul, so pained and grieving so,”

replies a loving spirit, kind and sweet,

“For the fair woman, that you feel and know,

has changed your life so quickly and so much,

you now are trembling in your vile defeat. 

Look how humility and mercy meet

in one so wise and gentle in her height:

so call her Lady, as by now you must.

And you will see, if steadfast is your trust,

such lofty miracles, such full delight, 

you’ll say, ‘O Love, true lord, do as you please:

here is your humble handmaid on her knees.’” 

My song, I do believe that those are few

who can unravel your most hidden sense,

so intricate and mighty is your wit. 

Therefore, if by some fate or circumstance

you stray and venture among people who

seem not completely to have fathomed it,

oh, then, I pray, console yourself a bit,

and say, O lovely latest song, to them, 

“Notice, at least, how beautiful I am!”